Trends Influencing the Passing of Prohibition and the Repeal of Prohibition

Stephanie Sandra Gentile AP US History

            In the early twentieth century, alcohol’s dangers encouraged several groups to engage in temperance movements because alcohol seemed to be overpowering the lives of American citizens.  Many rallied to rid the country of alcoholic beverages. Prohibition became a nationwide ban that made it illegal to produce, import, transport, and sell intoxicating beverages from 1920 to 1933.  Women generally led these temperance movements because they believed alcohol was the root of all evil and believed that banning alcohol would help solve most personal and social problems.  Women and other anti-alcohol supporters believed that through Prohibition, they could alleviate all the problems in society, including poverty, bad hygiene, and crime.  The 18th Amendment forbade the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages.  Ironically, the amendment did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol. Therefore, any alcoholic beverage that was cached before the prohibition of alcohol in January of 1920 was legal to consume in people’s homes. The 18th Amendment was thought to be a solution that would rid society of all its problems, but it was soon discovered that alcohol and Prohibition negatively impacted society in more ways than one. There were a number of forces that united to create a grand experiment to prohibit alcohol as a way to improve society, an experiment that ultimately failed because it unleashed destructive social, cultural, and political consequences.

There were many social trends that drove individuals to advocate for Prohibition that grew out of the period of reform during the Progressive Era.  During the Progressive Era, temperance movements started to gain traction when the middle class saw an opportunity to adopt temperance movements as part of a standard for self-discipline and upward mobility. The Anti-Saloon League (ASL) collaborated with churches to prohibit alcohol by lobbying for a nationwide prohibition of alcohol with the position that drinking alcohol was damaging American society. The ASL relied on churches for financial aid because of the influence that churches could have in turning people in favor of temperance.  Most of the ASL battles that occurred when collaborating with these church forces were against organized liquor forces. [i] The ASL impacted society’s perspective on alcohol by highlighting the dangers of alcohol for public awareness. [ii] To create an impact on society, the members of the ASL implemented the slogan of “The Church in Action against the Saloon” to show the power of the church when it worked with the people. [iii] By using this slogan, they were able to achieve their goals through focus and intimidation.[iv]  Leaders focused on alcohol as their one specific target because the members of the ASL wanted to free the nation from the strong and mighty grip that the substance could have on individuals. [v] Some of the pivotal leaders in the Anti-Saloon League included Ernest Cherrington and Wayne Wheeler because of their authoritative and persuasive ideas. As someone who was firmly against alcohol, Cherrington thought that the dangers of alcohol could be avoided through education.  Cherrington described the objective of the ASL and anti-alcohol campaigning to be “by all lawful measures to suppress the traffic in and use of intoxicating liquors”. Wayne Wheeler used personal anecdotes to show the detrimental effect that alcohol had on individuals, both mentally and physically.  At a young age, Wheeler was injured by his intoxicated neighbor, which triggered his resentment for alcohol. [vi] In a letter to President Wilson, he displayed his resentment by stating, “The people have requested to have heatless days, meatless days, wheatless days. The breweries and saloons of the country continue to waste foodstuffs, fuel, and manpower and to impair the efficiency of labor in the mines, factories, and even in munition plants near which saloons are located”. [vii] Wheeler detested alcohol and he wanted to see reform in the country to fix the pervasive problem.  Alcohol was not only emotionally destructive for him, but it was also damaging to the country. The dangerous substance had a strong effect on the nation, which in his mind contributed to destroying society.  Alcohol was unintentionally hurting the labor force and the environment because of the alcohol-producing factories that were popping up all over the nation.  Wheeler wanted to see the President, one of the most dominant people in the country, approach the problem with a viable solution.  This letter was an important piece in paving the road to Prohibition.  The Anti-Saloon League played a pivotal role in attempting to save the nation from alcohol’s undeniably powerful grasp, but alcohol proved to have too powerful a hold over the American people once the 18th Amendment passed.  

Another social and influential organization during the Progressive Era that rallied for prohibition was the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). The WCTU became the most powerful female reform organization of the 19th and 20th centuries. [viii] One of their goals after the death of their first leader, Frances Willard, was to promote temperance and complete abstinence by campaigning that drinking went against the will of God.  Lisa McGirr wrote about the impacts of the WCTU with one important notation being that the WCTU produced “four decades of peaceful anti-alcohol warfare”.[ix] This alliance showed the significance of uniting together to see a change in society. At first, the WCTU focused on prison reform, women’s suffrage, and labor laws.  Beginning in 1898, members began changing their purpose by rallying for prohibition.  Alcohol had begun taking a nasty toll on society, changing it for the worse.  Prohibition was supposed to bring relief by saving individuals from the menaces of society by bringing awareness to the topic. However, it really exploited the chaotic facets of society when speakeasies were established and bootlegging started to begin. Ella Boole, a member of the WCTU, stated “There would not be any social evil if there was no saloon evil”. Boole refers to prostitution in this euphemism about “social evil”, portraying the dark side that alcohol induces. Her persistent efforts as a WCTU leader was to sway younger generations by bringing awareness about the dangers of alcohol and to limit the number of bars and stores that were permitted to sell liquors. [x] The Women’s Christian Temperance Society had a great impact on educating society on the risks and hazards caused by consuming alcohol. 

Cultural trends also had a great effect on the passing of the 18th Amendment and prohibition, many having to do with religious revivals, national ambiance, and health discoveries. One cultural trend that proved significant in the promoting of anti-alcohol protests was the Second Great Awakening because of its great impact on temperance.  A pivotal element during these series of religious fervors was the ideal of Social Gospel, illuminating the idea of homage and piety as a good and orthodox Christian.[xi]  Individuals rallied against the making, drinking, and selling of any alcoholic beverages because the Bible explicitly stated that drinking was a sin that went against God.  Many churches were quick on their feet to adopt the temperance movements because they wanted to remain good Christians. 

Another influential trend in aiding the prohibition movement was World War I and German sentiment.  American propaganda dehumanized Germans through caricatures and illustrations of them as beer kegs. Newspapers included cartoons portraying the dehumanization of Germans.  Christian temperance movements associated Germans with beer because of the German-sounding brewery names. Members also engaged in advocating that drinking was a “treasonous act”. [xii] The national ambiance for alcohol shifted once more Americans viewed it as unacceptable and morally wrong to enjoy a drink when men were fighting for their lives in the war.  A new patriotism emerged when associated with prohibition.  More Americans decided to stand by their country and on behalf of the people fighting for it than enjoy a nice cold beer.  World War I played a small role in national prohibition because of the anti-German hysteria that was created through the shift in national mood and usages of propaganda.  John Strange, a politician, reported to the Milwaukee Journal, “We have German enemies across the water. We have German enemies in this country, too”.[xiii]  Anti-German hysteria was affecting the portrayal of alcohol in the country as being “good”.  Americans shifted their positive viewpoint on alcohol to a negative viewpoint because of the detrimental health factors and the key role that Germans played in supporting its consumption.  Head of the Committee of Public Information (CPI), George Creel explained, “When the fear was attached to all things German, it proceeded to be like an out-of-control virus”. [xiv] CPI and Creel, both being prime components of spreading propaganda during World War I, depicted the image of Germans negatively to reduce the amount of alcohol consumption and approval.  Like Creel, the Anti-Saloon League used propaganda to its advantage by painting a typical stereotype of Germans as being corrupt, drunken people because they only produced more and more beer.  The German hysteria perpetrated by the ASL and other supporters heavily influenced the passing of the 18th Amendment. [xv]

Other cultural trends that emerged in the twentieth century were health-related discoveries, changing perspectives on what to do and what not to do in regards to alcohol consumption.  Through studies, doctors learned that the alcohol consumption rate in America skyrocketed.  Between 1900 and 1913, the beer production shifted from 1.2 billion gallons to 2 billion gallons. Doctors portrayed it as a depressant and began associating intoxicating beverages with disease, crime, and mental illness. [xvi] These discoveries and shifts in mood had a significant impact on the American culture, affecting the perspectives of many.

After the several social and cultural initiatives started gaining traction in support of Prohibition, the government began to take action politically.  Political legislation included the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act of 1917, the 18th Amendment to the US Constitution (ratified in 1919), and the Volstead Act (of 1919). 

A defining initiative that led to Prohibition was the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act of 1917, which prohibited the transaction, sale, and manufacture of alcohol to soldiers.  Herbert Hoover, the head food administrator, reduced the brewing industries’ available grain by 30%.  Hoover also helped in establishing dry zones around shipyards, coal mines, and naval bases. [xvii]  This reduction created a limit on the production of alcohol, which would later prove its inefficacy when crime rates skyrocketed and individual behaviors reversed.  Presidents, specifically Woodrow Wilson, began speaking out on the controversial and damaging topic of alcohol.  In 1919, 36 states ratified the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the distribution and commercial manufacture of liquor and put it into effect at the federal level. [xviii] Disbelief and political action hastened the passing of Prohibition because people rallied behind restrictions on alcohol by claiming its “hazards”.  President Wilson declared, “this kind of fierce protracted drinking has now become universal, an accepted feature of social life instead of a disreputable escapade”, illustrating how social, cultural, and political trends all converged in providing the federal government a firm grip on alcohol.  [xix] 

Another important factor during Prohibition was the passing of the Volstead Act in October of 1919.  The purpose of the Volstead Act was to outline how the government would enforce the 18th Amendment.  Despite President Wilson’s support for Prohibition, he vetoed the Volstead Act because even he thought it was too strict.  Yet the political momentum was overwhelming.  Congress was easily able to overturn the veto and pass the legislation over his objections. The Volstead Act provided the control and authority to federal authorities over the sale, importation, and production of alcoholic and intoxicating liquor. The Volstead Act defined “intoxicating” as containing 0.5% or more of alcohol in a volume setting, which potentially forbade any alcoholic beverage. [xx] There was one exception to the Volstead Act, that being the distribution of alcohol, which was indeed still possible, but only for medicinal purposes. [xxi]

The Volstead Act produced chaos and was widely disliked, resulting in numerous amendments.  Once the federal government adopted the temperance cause, individuals were more likely to engage in drinking because of the excitement that the secrecy enhanced. After his inauguration and declaration of the Bank War, President Franklin Delanor Roosevelt permitted the transaction and consumption of beer by loosening the alcohol content consumption to nothing more than a 3.2%. His reasoning being, “We could all do with a beer”, showing a loosening of tensions through restrictions of such a strict piece of legislation. [xxii]

Some of the same trends that influenced the passing of Prohibition were the same ones that impacted its repeal because it proved to be a null and void policy.  Prohibition was unenforceable. One of the biggest trends that caused the repeal of Prohibition was the increase in organized crime.  After the passing of the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act, bootleggers emerged and became quite popular. This term “bootleggers” referred to individuals who smuggled alcoholic beverages even though the law forbade the transportation of liquored substances.  Not only did Prohibition not eliminate drinking, it established a black market that made it impossible for Prohibition to be effectively enforced.  Bootleggers and smugglers discovered successful strategies in illegally transporting alcohol.  For example, in Detroit, bootleggers successfully transported alcohol illegally through hidden compartments, water bottles, misleading suitcase bottoms, and casuistic floorboards in cars. [xxiii] Major crime lords and organizations materialized in society such as the Chicago Outfit and Al Capone. Capone’s focus as a criminal mastermind was to fabricate an international ring of bootleggers.  He constructed the importation of liquor from various areas and also created a system to distribute the alcohol.  Some of these distribution techniques consisted of salespeople, transportation drivers, armed guards, and speakeasies. [xxiv] Capone was quite the mastermind when it came to devising strategies regarding illegal alcohol and its consumption.  Although the government had banned the manufacturing and consumption of alcohol, it did not halt the desires and demands for alcoholic substances. Al Capone saw these demands and desires as a public outcry.  He later stated, “All I do is supply a public demand… somebody had to throw some liquor on that thirst”, trying to justify his wrongdoings as a criminal.  This statement had a huge importance in the era of Prohibition because it proved to be true.  He was making money off what the American people wanted, which was to consume more alcohol.  Capone gained legal immunity by constantly dispensing bribes to any law-enforcing individual that could get him into trouble in the areas where his illegal businesses were operated. [xxv]  Capone used his place in society to avoid any consequence that could interrupt his money-making schemes.  The restrictions and limitations placed on intoxicating beverages were frustrating because people wanted to have fun by enjoying a drink, making Capone’s plans more appealing.  President Roosevelt’s relaxation of the Volstead Act aided in the repealing of Prohibition because once there was more freedom in the consumption of alcohol, people only wanted more of it. 

Al Capone and the Chicago Outfit successfully established the speakeasy as a place where people could drink liquor in a more “private” location.  Instead of drinking alcohol in public, which was illegal, speakeasies were the accepted substitution.  Although in a public place, voices were lowered to avoid gaining any attention. Speakeasies started to become a part of American culture.  New York ended up hosting 32,000 illegal drinking locations by the start of the 1930’s. [xxvi] Speakeasies created new trends to redefine the American culture like the choices in music.  Jazz started to gain popularity, which gangsters used as a marketing strategy in the speakeasies. The music was fun and unique. African Americans who migrated to big cities like New York and Chicago were easily employed to play jazz music in these secret drinking spots. The developments of speakeasies also redefined spontaneity in society by incorporating a secret password for admittance. [xxvii] Al Capone’s creation of the speakeasy indulged America into a darker side that showed alcohol’s horrid effects. 

Prohibition not only changed the locations of where individuals drank, but it also completely changed the type of people who engaged in drinking.  Singer Alec Wilder stated, “A pretty girl in a speakeasy was the most beautiful girl in the world.” [xxviii]The banning of alcohol produced a scandalous side of women in the 1920’s, astonishing many because social life in America was changed forever. Women redefined their identity by stepping outside their traditional boundaries and changing their role in society by spontaneously altering the way they wore their hair and dressed for the public to see. They began to wear knee length dresses and cut their hair into “bob cuts”, factors that swayed the era to be known as the “Roaring Twenties”.  Women were reversing previous cultural and social trends.  Despite the surprised public responses, more women adapted these changes to the point where the new styles became socially acceptable. 

Many industries anticipated that Prohibition would be extremely helpful to their success, however, the complete opposite proved to be the case.  Supporters of Prohibition expected to see the sales for clothing products and household goods to skyrocket.  Once saloons began shutting down, landlords and real estate developers expected to see an increase in rent rates and improvement in neighborhoods. Just like Prohibition was expected to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed, most organizations and companies anticipated growth, but both were proved wrong. Prohibition displayed a decline in both entertainment and amusement industries.  Restaurants failed because they could no longer make the money they needed to stay in business without legal alcoholic beverage sales. [xxix]

During President Roosevelt’s presidency, the Cullen-Harrison Act passed, which legalized the sale of specific alcohols. Yet again, another change was made to the Prohibition legislation.  This showed a loosening in rules because more people wanted to see alcohol return to society.  Since little changes and amendments had been made to Prohibition, many Americans viewed it as acceptable to disobey the law because it was most likely going to change soon anyway.  Eventually, Prohibition proved to be a failure, which lead to its ultimate repeal in December of 1933, with the passing of the 21st Amendment. [xxx]

Prohibition was a disappointment. The objective to eliminate drinking failed the nation when a black market was created that was filled with secrecy. Criminals and random violence were just a few of the consequences that came from prohibition. [xxxi]  The trends that took place in the constantly changing world influenced prohibition because they affected the way that individuals viewed and behaved in society. Prohibition reversed the role that women played in society by redefining all aspects of their behavior: the way they could dress, act, and wear their hair.  Prohibition also served as a watershed event in the event that people became more assertive with their goals by advocating for something that they wanted to see changed. Although the overall goal of Prohibition failed, it brought Americans out of their shells to fight for what they believed was right.  President Herbert Hoover described Prohibition as a “great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far reaching in purpose”. [xxxii] This quote falsely illustrated the effect of Prohibition during the 1920’s. The “noble experiment” was undertaken to improve society for the better by limiting the number of reported crimes, attempting to solve social issues, and helping Americans with health and hygiene. The goal to eliminate drinking failed because it completely altered society and its morals on what was right and what was wrong. Women became more independent in their actions, gaining strength and confidence. However, this shift in behavior marked the beginning of women becoming more “provocative” in their portrayal.  Crimes became more prevalent as people demanded more alcohol, despite it being forbidden.  Crimes were committed because Prohibition obliterated jobs, established black markets and black market violence, and increased the prices that people had to pay for prohibited goods.  Society became divided over the conflict of how people should behave and to what extent alcohol should play a part in an individual’s lifestyle.  What Americans learned from prohibition is remarkable. Prohibition showed how easy it was for individuals to disrespect society and disobey the law.  It created big businesses like bootlegging and speakeasies, showing how easy it was to fall to the dark side.  Alcohol had overpowered the nation by taking control, which made it difficult to completely eliminate its presence in public places.  Instead of improving society, Prohibition hurt society because of that drastic consequences that came from it.  In conclusion, Prohibition failed to accomplish its goals. Rather than fixing the alcoholic epidemic, it added to the problems it was supposed to solve through the social, cultural, and political ramifications it unleashed that redefined America.

-Stephanie Sandra

Notes

[i] Cherrington, History of the Saloon League, 61.

[ii] Blocker, Did Prohibition Really Work, American Journal of Public Health. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470475/.

[iii] Okrent, Last Call, 37.

[iv] Okrent, 36.

[v] Okrent, 37.

[vi] Cherrington, 99.

[vii] Okrent, 99.

[viii] McGirr, The War on Alcohol, 9.

[ix] McGirr, 126.

[x] McGirr, 15.

[xi] McGirr, 9.

[xii] Blocker. , www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470475/.

[xiii] Okrent, 100.

[xiv] Okrent, 101.

[xv] Thornton, Prohibition was a Failure. www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/alcohol-prohibition-was-failure.

[xvi] Blocker. , www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470475/.

[xvii] Okrent. 99.

[xviii] Moore, Actually Prohibition Was a Success. www.nytimes.com/1989/10/16/opinion/actually-prohibition-was-a-success.html.

[xix] Okrent, 206.

[xx] Sandbrook, How Prohibition Backfired and Gave America an Era of Gangsters and Speakeasies. www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/26/lawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies.

[xxi] Okrent, 193.

[xxii] Sandbrook. www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/26/lawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies.

[xxiii] Sandbrook. www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/26/lawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies.

[xxiv] Hales and Kazmers, Organized Crime: How It was Changed by Prohibition. www.umich.edu/~eng217/student_projects/nkazmers/organizedcrime2.html.

[xxv] Lerner, Unintended Consequences of Alcohol. www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/.

[xxvi] Okrent, 207.

[xxvii] Thornton. www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/alcohol-prohibition-was-failure.

[xxviii] Okrent, 211.

[xxix] Lerner. www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/.

[xxx] Sandbrook, www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/26/lawless-prohibition-gangsters-speakeasies.

[xxxi] Moore. www.nytimes.com/1989/10/16/opinion/actually-prohibition-was-a-success.html.

[xxxii] Lerner. www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/.

Bibliography

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Cherrington, Ernest Hurst. History of the Anti-Saloon League. Hardpress Publishing, 2012.

Hales, Taylor, and Nikolas Kazmers. “Organized Crime: How It Was Changed By Prohibition.” Organized Crime - How It Was Changed by Prohibition, 2004, www.umich.edu/~eng217/student_projects/nkazmers/organizedcrime2.html.

Lerner, Michael. “Unintended Consequences of Alcohol.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 2011, www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/.

McGirr, Lisa. The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State. W.W Norton and Company, 2016.

Moore, Mark H. “Actually, Prohibition Was a Success.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 16 Oct. 1989, www.nytimes.com/1989/10/16/opinion/actually-prohibition-was-a-success.html.

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